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Table of Contents

1.Introduction: Ecology, Evolution, and the Scientific Method

2. Adaptations to Aquatic Environments
• Example of limestone sediments, Figure 2.8: Percé Rock, Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec
• Example of thermophiles, Figure 2.19: Rabbitkettle Hotsprings in Yukon
• Practicing Ecology: Seeing Underwater 
Shai Sabbah and his colleagues from Queen’s University investigate how the visual system of fish is adapted to light transmission underwater
• Migration of salmon on Fraser River affected by water temperatures, p. 50

3. Adaptations to Terrestrial Environments
• Examples of structural adaptations of plants against heat and drought, Figure 3.13 and p. 71: Native Canadian species
• Example of basking, Figure 3.19: five-lined skink
• Example of counter-current circulation, Figure 3.22, Caribou
• Practicing Ecology: Habitat Choices of Lizards
Stephen Lougheed and his lab at Queen’s University have been studying how skinks cope with extreme temperatures

4. Adaptations to Variable Environments
• Examples of spatial variation, Figure 4.2: various locations across Canada
• Adaptations to fluctuating salt environments, Figure 4.12: Vancouver Island, British Columbia
• Adaptability of food choices in sea otters living off the coast of Newfoundland, p. 107
• Practicing Ecology: Plastic Mouths in Fish 
Dolph Schluter and his colleagues at the University of British Columbia have studied the morphological plasticity of fish mouths in response to changing prey abundances.

5. Climates and Soils
• Hardiness zones for plants, chapter opener and map, pp. 113-114
• Example of regressions, using Canada temperature information, “Analyzing Ecology”, p. 118
• Example of rainshadow, The prairie in southern Alberta, P. 128
• Inclusion of Ae soil horizon, Figures 5.16-5.17
• Polar bears in Labrador, p. 133
• Practicing Ecology: Why are the Polar Bears Disappearing?
Ian Stirling and his colleagues from Environment Canada have examined possible reasons why polar bear populations have declined in recent years.

6. Terrestrial and Aquatic Biomes
• Climate diagrams examples:
     o Figure 6.5 Tundra biome: Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada
     o Figure 6.6 Boreal Forest biome: Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada
     o Figure 6.7 Temperate rainforest biome: Carmanah Point, British Columbia, Canada
     o Figure 6.10 Temperate grassland/ cold desert biome: Brandon, Manitoba, Canada
• Example of a river, Figure 6.14: Athabasca River, Alberta
• Example of a lake, Figure 6.14: Lake Louise, Alberta
• Examples of freshwater wetlands, Figure 6.17: Swamp in Campbellville,Ontario, marsh in Point Pelee, National Park in Leamington, Ontario; bog in the Mingan Archipelago National Park Reserve in Quebec
• Example of Salt march, Figure 6.18: Prince Edward Island
• Examples of Intertidal zones, Figure 6.20: Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick
• Practicing Ecology: Methane Production in Peatlands
Tim Moore, from McGill University, and his colleagues have studied how changes in precipitation influence the decomposition of peat

7. Evolution and Adaptation
• Example of evolution through selection, Figure 7.4, p. 164, Figure 7.5: Spirit bears on coast of British Columbia
• Example of bottleneck effect, Figure 7.7 and p. 168: whooping crane
• Case study on founder effect, p. 168: founder effect in the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region of northeastern Quebec
• Case study on sympatric speciation, page 179 and Figure 7.19: Stickleback species living in some of British Columbia’s coastal lakes
• Case study on drug resistant tuberculosis in Inuit communities, pp.181-182
• Practicing Ecology:  Predator Preferences and Prey Phenotypes 
Elizabeth Boulding and her lab at the University of Guelph study the response of phenotypes to selection in intertidal and marine environments

8. Life Histories
• Case study on offspring number versus offspring size, pp. 189-190: Salmon in Nova Scotia
• Case study on comparisons within species, p.194: pumpkinseed sunfish in Ontario lakes
• Canadian data on senescence in humans, Figure 8.11
• Case study on Canadian fisheries with regard to life history and commercial fishing, pp. 203-204
• Practicing Ecology: Trophy Hunting for Bighorn Sheep
David Coltman from the University of Alberta and his colleagues have studied how sport hunting has altered the evolutionary trajectory of bighorn rams

9. Reproductive Strategies
• Example of a Canadian plant that uses vegetative reproduction, Figure 9.1 Arctic Ross’s sandwort
• Case study on adaptive sex determination, Atlantic silverside fish, p. 217 and Figure 9.10
• Example of sexual dimorphism among caribou, discussion on p. 224 and Figure 9.17
• Case study of sexual conflict among water striders, p. 226, and Figure 9.21
• Practicing Ecology: How to Handle Sneaky Males
Bryan Neff and his lab from the University of Western Ontario study behavioural ecology and the evolution of mating systems

10. Social Behaviors
• Case study on competition among killer whales off the coast of British Columbia, p. 235 and Figure 10.5
• Practicing Ecology: Plants that Know Their Kin
As a researcher at the University of Toronto, Jay Biernaskie studied the fitness consequences of kin recognition in plants.

11. Population Distributions
• Case study on distribution of horse gentian showing how small-scale variation in the environment can create geographic ranges that are composed of small patches of suitable habitat, pp. 249-250 and Figure 11.2
• Case study on suitability of habitat using four species of moss in Alberta peatland, p. 250 and Figure 11.3
• Case study of the geographic range of the red-winged blackbird throughout Canada, p. 254 and Figure 11.6
• Discussion of Yukon Territory to Yellowstone corridor, p. 262 and Figure 11.15
• Practicing Ecology: Blowing Across the Geographic Range 
Chris Eckert and his lab at Queen’s University in Ontario study evolutionary adaptations that enable plants to disperse across a landscape.

12. Population Growth and Regulation
• Case study of growth in sea otter population in British Columbia waters, p. 275
• Case study of negative density dependence in deer mouse population in Algonquin Park, Ontario, p. 277 and Figure 12.8
• Practicing Ecology: Acidification and Zooplankton
Shelley Arnott from Queen’s University and her colleagues study the factors that determine the distribution and abundance of freshwater invertebrates

13. Population Dynamics over Space and Time
• Case study of wolverine hunt in Canada as a measure of population size, p. 296 and Figure 13.1
• Dating the ages of existing trees in an old-growth forest in Manitoba to determine how age structures of populations changed over time, p. 298 and Figure 13.4
• Case study of duck populations on three archipelagos off the Labrador coast to examine extinction in small populations, p. 306 and Figure 3.13
• Case study on a metapopulation of the Rocky Mountain Parnassian butterfly in meadows on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains to discuss the importance of patch size and patch isolation, p. 311 and Figure 13.19
• Practicing Ecology: Voles and Berries
Charles Krebs at the University of British Columbia and his colleagues study the causes and consequences of rodent population fluctuations in North American forests

14. Predation and Herbivory
• Case study on the effects of herbivores, fencing out deer in Gwaii Haanas National Park Preserve and Heritage Site, British Columbia, p. 336 and Figure 14.6
• Case study on plant response to herbivory, the lesser snow goose in the wetlands of Hudson Bay Lowlands, p. 338
• Practicing Ecology: Indirect Effects of Deer Herbivory
Peter Arcese from the University of British Columbia and his colleagues study the effects of animal management and conservation on ecosystems

15. Parasitism and Infectious Disease
• Case study on Dutch Elm disease in Toronto, p. 350.
• Case study on SARS in Toronto, p. 352.
• Discussion of Lyme disease in Canada, p. 363.
• Practicing Ecology: The Cost of Having a Bodyguard 
Jacques Brodeur from Université de Montréal and his colleagues study interactions between herbivores and their enemies.

16. Competition
• Competition for space on Whaler Islets off the coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia Figure 16.1
• Case study on competition among mosses in northeastern Alberta, p. 373
• Case study on disturbances and competition in fescue prairie in Alberta and Saskatchewan, p. 380 and Figure 16.11
• Case study on herbivory and plants with tent caterpillars and trembling aspens in Alberta, p. 381
• Case study on apparent competition and variation over time with woodland caribou, wolves, and moose, west of the Athabasca River in northeastern Alberta, p. 384 and Figure 16.18
• Practicing Ecology: The Importance of Diversity
Marc Cadotte at the University of Toronto studies how plant diversity alters competition and primary productivity

17. Mutualism
• Case study on the mutualistic relationship between grasses and their arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Grassland National Park, Saskatchewan, p. 402
• Case study on how a change in fungal abundance might affect plant and insect communities in an Alberta grassland, p. 405 and Figure 17.21
• Case study on how communities are also influenced by the responses of different plant species to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, discussion of an experiment carried out at Guelph University, p. 408
• Practicing Ecology: The Benefits of a Backup Plan
Megan Frederickson at the University of Toronto studies the factors that maintain mutualistic relationships between plants and animals

18. Community Structure
• Changes in vegetation as one walks from the base to the top of a mountain on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, p. 415 and Figure 18.1
• Case study on recolonization after fire of areas in the boreal mixed-wood forest in Alberta, p. 419
• Case study on distribution of fish abundance based on survey from Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans, p. 421 and Figure 18.8
• Case study of how a community can move to an alternative stable state in the lichen woodlands in Quebec’s Parc des Grands-Jardins, p. 436
• Practicing Ecology: Invasive Crayfish and Trophic Cascades
Jonathan Moore at Simon Fraser University studies how the invasion or extinction of species alters the functioning of aquatic ecosystems

19. Community Succession and Development
• Succession at Hudson Bay, p. 445 and Figure 19.2
• Case study on observed changes in the animal community that coincide with plant succession in the black spruce forests in western Quebec, p. 450
• Discussion of succession in the Saint Lawrence estuary, p. 450
• Persistence of Fire tolerant species in the Yukon Territory, p. 462
• Case study of how intense grazing by greater snow geese reduces dominant grass species, p. 462 and Figure 19.17
• Practicing Ecology: Determining Conservation Baselines
Mark Vellend and his lab at the University of British Columbia study the historical and contemporary processes that alter plant communities

20. Movement of Energy in Ecosystems
• Case study on invasive species and food web alteration with worms introduced into the forests of the Kananaskis Valley in Alberta, p. 207
• General patterns in the distribution of primary productivity across Canada, Figure 20.6
• Practicing Ecology: Viruses and Marine Nutrient Cycling
Chris Suttle and his lab at the University of British Columbia study the ecological importance of viruses in the open ocean

21. Movement of Elements in Ecosystems
• Dead zone in the lower St. Lawrence estuary in Quebec, p. 492
• Natural Resources Canada study of ground water and aquifer use in Canada, p. 494
• Canada limits the use of phosphorus in detergents, p. 501
• Nutrient travel in streams in British Columbia, p. 509
• Practicing Ecology: Leaf after Death of Salmon
John Richardson and his lab at the University of British Columbia study the factors that alter stream community composition and ecosystem function.

22. Landscape Ecology, Biogeography, and Global Biodiversity
• Case study on causes of habitat heterogeneity in the boreal forest of the Lake Nipigon region in northwestern Ontario, p. 517 and Figure 22.2
• An example of legacy effects, an esker near Whitefish Lake, Northwest Territories, Figure 22.1
• Case study on relationship between habitat heterogeneity and species diversity among bird species in the boreal forest of Alberta, p. 518
• Case study of marbled murrelet threatened by increasing edge habitat in old growth forests on the British Columbia coast, p.524 and Figure 22.10
• Case study on matrix of habitats between fragments with Alpine Parnassius butterfly on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, p. 524
• Practicing Ecology: Maintaining Nightshade
Nash Turley, a graduate student at the University of Toronto Mississauga, studies the ecology and conservation of plants and herbivorous insects

23. Global Conservation
• Economic benefit of boreal forests in Canada, p. 543
• Variety in Canadian apple farming as an example of declining agricultural diversity, p. 549
• Reduction in the amount old old-growth forest in Canada, p. 551
• Loss of tallgrass prairie in Manitoba, p. 551
• Restriction on DDT use in Canada, p. 557
• Case study on conservation in Wood Buffalo National Park, in Alberta and the Northwest Territories, p. 560 and Figure 23.2
• Practicing Ecology: A Critical Threshold for Cod
Boris Worm at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia studies global trends in marine conservation

Authors

Robert E. Ricklefs

ROBERT E. RICKLEFS is Curators Professor of Biology at the University of Missouri–St. Louis, where he has been a member of the faculty since 1995. His teaching at Missouri, and previously at the University of Pennsylvania, has included courses in introductory and advanced ecology, biogeography, evolution, and biological statistics. Bob’s research has addressed a broad range of topics in ecology and evolutionary biology, from the adaptive significance of life-history traits of birds, to island biogeography and the community relationships of birds, herbivorous insects, and forest trees. In particular, he has championed the importance of recognizing the impact of large-scale processes on local ecological assemblages of species. Bob has published in numerous journals including Science, Nature, PNAS, Evolution, Ecology, Ecology Letters, and the American Naturalist. His contributions have been recognized by honorary doctorates from the Université Catholique de Louvain (Belgium), Aarhus University (Denmark), and the University of Burgundy (France). He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences of the United States. Bob published the first edition of The Economy of Nature in 1976 and was joined by Rick Relyea with the seventh edition.

Rick Relyea

Rick Relyea is the David Darrin Senior ‘40 Endowed Chair in Biological Sciences and the director of the Darrin Freshwater Institute at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He received a BS in environmental forest biology from the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, an MS in wildlife management from Texas Tech University, and a PhD in ecology and evolution from the University of Michigan. He has authored more than 200 scientific articles and book chapters and presented research seminars throughout the world. Rick was a professor at the University of Pittsburgh for 15 years, where he was named the Chancellor’s Distinguished Researcher and received the Tina and David Bellet Teaching Excellence Award. In 2014, he moved to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute to direct The Jefferson Project, which is the most technologically advanced research endeavor to study freshwater lakes. Rick has a strong interest in high school education, including hosting high school science teachers who conduct research in his laboratory. He is co-author of Environmental Science for the AP® Course, also published by BFW publishers.

Christoph Richter

Christoph Richter is Lecturer in the Department of Biology at the University of Toronto – Mississauga, where he has been on the faculty since 2011. He began his teaching career in 2002 at Queen’s University, where he was recognized for his excellence in teaching. Since then, he has taught undergraduate courses on many topics including animal behaviour, vertebrate biology, marine mammalogy, biological diversity, introductory ecology, and statistics. He strives to engage students by making course content meaningful and by demonstrating the dynamic nature of scientific research. His teaching has taken him from the Arctic to the Gulf of Maine.

Christoph earned a M.Sc. from Memorial University of Newfoundland and a Ph.D. from Otago University, New Zealand. His research focused on the impacts of human activities, such as fishing, whale watching, and oil exploration, on the behaviour of cetaceans. He studied humpback whales, harbour porpoises and sperm whales off Newfoundland and New Zealand and in the Bay of Fundy and the Gulf of Mexico.

Christoph’s current research focuses on improving pedagogical performance. He is studying how opinion and knowledge of evolutionary concepts change throughout the undergraduate programme and what factors influence student academic success.

 

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