Chapter 21: Chapter Outline
The following annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this chapter.
Instructions: Review the outline to recall events and their relationships as presented in the chapter. Return to skim any sections that seem unfamiliar.
A. Foundations of Empire
1.
By 1918, at the end of World War I, European nations’ grip on their colonial
empires was weakening. The
acquiring overseas territories
and pursued a different path. It developed a more "informal empire," based on
business interests rather
than administrative control. President Woodrow Wilson
believed the
socialism and European-style imperialism, the exercise of
military, political, and economic power overseas.
2.
Historians used to describe turn-of-the-century
policy in this era and the
nation’s relentless earlier expansion across the continent. Wars against native
peoples had occurred almost
continuously since the nation’s founding; in the
1840s, the
3.
But policymakers beginning in the 1890s went on a determined quest for global
markets. Industrialization and a modern navy provided
tools for the
4.
Confronting high unemployment and mass protests, policymakers feared that
American workers would embrace socialism or communism.
The alternative, they
believed, was overseas markets that would create jobs and prosperity at home.
5.
Intellectual trends also favored imperialism. As early
as 1885, in his popular book Our Country,
Congregationalist minister Josiah Strong
urged Protestants to proselytize
overseas. He predicted that American "Anglo-Saxons"—"the representative, let us
hope, of the largest
liberty, the purest Christianity, the highest civilization,
having developed particularly aggressive traits calculated to impress its
institutions upon mankind"—would "spread itself over the earth." Such
arguments were grounded in American exceptionalism,
the
idea that the
6.
Fear of ruthless competition drove the
saw that the
European powers were busily carving up Africa and
steel-plated
battleships. In his book The Influence of
Sea Power upon History (1890),
appropriated funds for three battleships. President Grover Cleveland continued this naval program.
B. The War of 1898
1. In February 1895, Cuban
patriots mounted a major guerrilla war against
managed to hold onto the island. The Spanish commander
responded by rounding up civilians into concentration camps, where as many
as
200,000 Cubans died of starvation, exposure, or dysentery.
2.
In the
especially among
those who feared that American men were losing strength and courage amid the
conditions of industrial society.
3. President Cleveland had
no interest in supporting the Cuban rebellion, but he worried over
disrupting trade and damaging American-owned sugar
plantations on the island. An unstable
strategic interests, especially a proposed canal whose
4.
Taking office in 1897, McKinley was inclined to take a tougher stance. In
September, the
must ensure an "early and certain peace," or the
conservative regime fell and a liberal
government, taking office in October 1897, offered
5.
On February 9, 1898, Hearst’s New York Journal published a private letter by Dupuy de Lôme, Spanish
minister to the
which he belittled the McKinley
administration. De Lôme resigned, but exposure of the
letter intensified Americans’ indignation against
lost.
6.
Hesitant business leaders now became impatient, believing war was preferable to
an unending Cuban crisis. On March 27, McKinley
cabled an ultimatum to
the rebels.
independence. On April 11, McKinley asked Congress for
authority to intervene in
7. Historians long referred
to the ensuing conflict as the Spanish-American War, but that name ignores the
central role of the Cuban
revolutionaries, who had started the conflict and
hoped to achieve national independence. Thus, many historians now call it the
War of
1898.
8.
On April 24, 1898,
commission as lieutenant colonel of a
cavalry regiment.
9.
The decisive engagement of the war took place in the Pacific. This was the
handiwork of Theodore Roosevelt, who, while still in the
Navy Department, had
gotten intrepid Commodore George
Dewey appointed commander of the Pacific
fleet. In the event of war, Dewey had instructions to sail immediately for the
Spanish-owned
Dewey’s instructions.
On May 1, 1898, American ships cornered the Spanish fleet in
capital, fell on August 13.
10.
Nominally an independent nation,
sugarcane planters. An 1876 treaty between the
American market, with
lease for a
11. When
Liliuokalani and negotiated a
treaty of annexation. Grover
violate
12.
In
advantages of a demoralized foe and
knowledgeable Cuban allies.
13.
On July 3, the Spanish fleet in
Spanish forces surrendered. American combat casualties had been
few; most deaths had resulted from malaria and yellow fever.
C. The Spoils of War
1.
The
2.
Initially, the
whole of
whole
3. Leading citizens, including Jane Addams, Mark Twain, and
other peace advocates, enlisted in the anti‑imperialist cause. Steel king
Andrew Carnegie offered $20 million to purchase Philippine independence. Labor
leader Samuel Gompers warned union members about
the threat of competition from
cheap Filipino labor.
4. Anti-imperialists,
however, were a diverse lot. Some argued that Filipinos and Hawaiians were
perfectly capable of self-rule; others
warned about the dangers of annexing 8
million Filipinos of an "inferior race."
5.
In the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded the
as
6.
On February 4, 1899—two days before the Senate ratified the treaty—fighting
broke out between American and Filipino patrols on the
edge of
occupying American forces. TThe ensuing
conflict far exceeded in length and ferocity the war just concluded with
7. Fighting tenacious guerrillas, the U.S. Army
resorted to the same tactics
rounding up civilians. Atrocities became
commonplace on both sides. In three years of warfare, 4,200 Americans and an
estimated
200,000 Filipinos died; many of the latter included dislocated
civilians, particularly children, who succumbed to malnutrition and disease.
8. The treaty, while guaranteeing freedom of religion to
inhabitants of ceded Spanish territories, withheld any promise of citizenship.
It
was up to Congress to decide their "civil rights and political status."
9. In 1901, the Supreme Court upheld this
provision in a set of decisions known as the Insular Cases. The Constitution,
declared the
Court, did not automatically extend citizenship to people in
acquired territories; Congress could decide. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the
10. In accordance with a special commission set
up by McKinley, the Jones Act of 1916 eventually committed the
Philippine independence but set no date. (The Philippines later
achieved independence in 1946.)
II. A Power Among Powers
A. The
Open Door in
1. American policymakers
and business leaders had a burning interest in East Asian markets, but they
were entering a crowded field. In
the late 1890s, following
divided coastal
a note claiming the right of equal trade
access—an "open door"—for all nations seeking to do business in
2. When a secret society of Chinese nationalists, known
outside
3. In these years, Europe
and the United Sates were startled by an unexpected development:
dominant power. A decade after its victory over
peninsula and
Manchuria, in northern
victories, the Japanese smashed the Russian forces.
4.
Contemptuous of other Asians, Roosevelt respected the Japanese, whom he called "a
wonderful and civilized people." More importantly,
he saw
of free oceanic
commerce and recognizing
5.
William Howard Taft entered the White House in 1909 convinced that the
a larger role for American
investors, especially in Chinese railroad construction. Eager to promote
hoped that infusions of American capital would offset
Japanese power.
6.
When the Chinese Revolution of 1911 toppled the Manchu dynasty, Taft supported
the victorious Nationalists, who wanted to
modernize their country and liberate
it from Japanese domination. The
long-term rivalry with
B. The
1.
Closer to home, European powers conceded Roosevelt’s argument that the
2.
In 1900, the
right to build and fortify a Central American canal.
3.
In facing rivals, Roosevelt famously argued that the
most of all, naval power, and
rapid access to two oceans required a canal.
4.
Freed by
per year, to purchase from
5.
Furious when
solution. Panamanians, long separated from
covert assistance to an independence movement, triggering a bloodless
revolution.
6.
On November 6, 1903, the
lease on a canal zone.
Roosevelt never regretted the venture, though in 1922 the
conscience money.
7.
Roosevelt was already working in other ways to strengthen
island in
1902, the
from making a treaty with any country
except the
saw fit.
8.
Claiming that instability invited European intervention, Roosevelt announced in
1904 that the
guaranteeing that the United States would
protect its Latin American neighbors from European powers and help to preserve
their
independence, it asserted the United States’ unrestricted right to
regulate Caribbean affairs. The Roosevelt Corollary was not a treaty;
it was a
unilateral declaration sanctioned only by
intervened regularly in
C.
1. Since the 1870s, Mexican
dictator Porfirio Díaz had
created a friendly climate for American investors who purchased railroads,
plantations,
mines, and much-coveted oil fields. By the early 1900s, however, he feared the
extraordinary power of these economic
interests and began to nationalize—reclaim—key
resources.
2.
Powerful American investors, who faced the loss of their Mexican holdings,
began to back Francisco Madero, an advocate of
constitutional government who
was friendlier to
3.
In 1911, Madero forced Díaz to resign and proclaimed himself president. But his position was weak. In February
1913, Madero was
deposed and murdered by a leading general, Victoriano Huerta.
4. The
Venustiano Carranza, the
Mexican leader whom
Mexican Revolution.
5.
On the pretext of a minor insult to the U.S. Navy,
of nineteen American and 126 Mexican lives.
6.
The Huerta regime crumbled. Carranza’s forces, after nearly engaging the
Americans themselves, entered
August 1914. But
7. Carranza’s victory did
not subdue all revolutionary activity. In 1916, General Pancho Villa stirred up trouble on the U.S.-Mexico border,
killing sixteen American
civilians and raiding the town of
8.
occupation. Mexican public opinion
demanded withdrawal, and armed clashes broke out between
of war, both governments backed off, and
9.
The following year, Carranza’s government finally received official recognition
from
intention to police not only the Caribbean and Central America, but
also
III. The
A. The Great War, 1914–1917
1.
While competing imperial claims fostered conflicts
around the globe, a war of unprecedented scale was brewing in
2.
neighbors. To the east, the Ottoman Empire was disintegrating and losing
its grip on the Balkans, while European powers jockeyed to
claim and defend
colonies in Africa, the Middle East, and
3.
Out of these conflicts, two rival power blocs emerged: the Triple Alliance (
Entente (
another by public and secret treaties.
4.
The spark that ignited World War I came in the Balkans, where
5.
and its ally, the independent Slavic state of
student Gavrilo Princip, to resist
Austrian rule.
6.
In June 1914, in the town of
7. Like dominos falling, the system of European alliances rapidly pushed all the powers into war.
8.
armies against
attacking
9.
By August 4, most of
and
10.
Two major war zones emerged.
Austrians and Hungarians,
11.
Because most of the warring nations held colonial empires, the conflict spread
to the Middle East, Africa, and
future of those areas into question.
12.
Hoping to secure valuable colonies,
13. For four bloody years,
millions of soldiers fought a war of
attrition in heavily fortified trenches that cut across a narrow swath of
attacks across "no man’s land," only to be mangled by barbed
wire or mowed down by machine guns.
14.
Struggling to break the stalemate,
15.
As the Germans tried to break through French lines at
The French fared even worse, with 550,000
dead or wounded soldiers. It was all to no avail. From 1914 to 1918, the
Western Front
barely moved.
B. From Neutrality to War
1. At the outbreak of war,
If he kept the
Theodore
Roosevelt had helped arbitrate the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.
2. Even if
viewed
homeland.
3.
Progressive-minded Republicans such as Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin vehemently opposed taking sides in a European fight,
as did
Socialists who condemned the war as a conflict among greedy capitalist and
imperialist nations.
4.
Two giants of American industry, Andrew Carnegie and Henry Ford, opposed the
war. In December 1915, Ford sent a hundred men and
women to
5. The
naval blockade on the Central Powers to
cut off vital supplies of food and military equipment.
6.
The
favoring
and
7. To challenge the
British navy,
8. In April 1915, the German embassy in
destruction. A few weeks later, a U-boat off the
coast of
including 128 Americans.
9. The attack on the passenger ship incensed
Americans. President Wilson sent strongly worded protests to
subsided by September when
10. Nonetheless, the
Finding neither side seriously interested in peace,
11. Despite
warfare, a decision dictated by the impasse on the
Western Front. In response,
12. A few weeks later,
newspapers published an intercepted dispatch from the German foreign secretary,
Arthur Zimmermann, to his
minister in
war, Germany
would help Mexico recover "the lost territory of Texas, New Mexico, and
Arizona."
13. With Pancho Villa’s border raids still fresh in the public mind,
the Mexico-Germany threat jolted American opinion. Meanwhile,
German U-boats
attacked American ships without warning, sinking three on
March 18 alone.
14. On April 2, 1917,
promised that
American involvement would make the world "safe for democracy."
15.
On April 6, the
senators and fifty members of the House voted against entry, including
Representative Jeannette Rankin of
elected to Congress.
C. "Over There"
1. In 1917, the
2. President Wilson chose General Pershing to head the American Expeditionary Force (AEF).
3. When the
and troop ships in armed convoys, the U.S. Navy cut that monthly rate
to 400,000 tons by the end of 1917.
4. With trench warfare grinding on,
Allied commanders pleaded for American soldiers to fill their depleted units,
but Pershing waited until
the AEF reached full strength.
5. Peace with
50 miles of
6. As Allied leaders called desperately for
Château-Thierry and
7. With American soldiers arriving in massive
numbers, Allied forces brought the German offensive to a halt in July; by
September, they
forced a German retreat.
8. Then Pershing pitted over 1 million
American soldiers against an outnumbered and exhausted German army in the
early November, this attack had broken
the German defense of a crucial rail hub at
and 95,000 wounded.
9. The flood of American troops and
supplies across the
uprisings at home,
the German government signed an armistice on November 11, 1918. The Great War
was over.
10. By the end of World War
I, almost 4 million American men—popularly known as "doughboys"—wore
thousand female nurses.
11. The
recruits reflected
different languages.
12. Over 400,000 African American
men enlisted, accounting for 13 percent of the armed forces. Their wartime
experiences were often
grim. They served in segregated units and were given the
most menial tasks. Racial discrimination disrupted military efficiency and
erupted in violence at several camps.
13.
About two-thirds of American soldiers in
14.
During the brief period of American participation, 53,000 servicemen died in
action. Another 63,000 died from disease, mainly the
devastating influenza
pandemic that began early in 1918 and, over the next two years, killed 50
million people throughout the world.
15.
The nation’s military deaths, though substantial, were a mere speck compared to
the 500,000 American civilians who died of this
terrible flu—not to mention the
8 million soldiers lost by the Allies and Central Powers.
D. War on the Home Front
1.
American businesses made big bucks from World War I. As grain, weapons, and
manufactured goods flowed to
investments around the globe. At the same time,
government powers expanded, with new federal agencies overseeing almost every
part of the economy.
2.
The War Industries Board (WIB), established in July 1917, directed military production.
The WIB allocated scarce resources among
industries, ordered factories to
convert to war production, set prices, and standardized procedures.
3.
During the war, suppressing dissent became a near obsession for President
Wilson. In April 1917,
Information (CPI), a government propaganda
agency headed by journalist George Creel. The committee set out to mold
Americans into
"one white-hot mass" of war patriotism. The CPI touched the
lives of practically every civilian. It distributed 75 million pieces of
literature and enlisted thousands of volunteers to deliver short pro-war
speeches at movie theaters.
4.
During the war, Congress passed two new laws to curb dissent. The Espionage Act
of 1917 imposed stiff penalties for antiwar
activities. The Sedition Act of
1918 prohibited any words or behavior that might "incite, provoke, or encourage
resistance to the
conviction of more than a thousand people.
5.
In Schenck v. United States (1919), the Supreme
Court upheld the conviction of a socialist who was jailed for circulating
pamphlets
that urged army draftees to resist induction. The justices followed
this with a similar decision in Abrams v.
United States (1919),
stating that authorities could prosecute speech that
they believed to pose "a clear and present danger to the safety of the country."
6.
World War I created new economic opportunities at home. Jobs in war industries
drew thousands of people to the cities, including
immigrants.
7.
For the first time, with so many men in uniform, jobs in heavy industry opened
to African Americans. Well before the war, some
southern blacks had moved to
the North; wartime jobs accelerated the pace.
8.
During World War I, more than 400,000 African Americans moved to such cities as
became known as the Great
Migration.
9.
Wartime labor shortages also prompted Mexican Americans in
industrial jobs in rapidly growing southwestern cities.
Thousands of Mexicans also entered the
from the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1917.
10.
Women were the largest group to take advantage of wartime employment
opportunities. About 1 million women joined the paid labor
force for the first
time, while another 8 million gave up low-wage service jobs for higher-paying
industrial work.
E. Women’s Voting Rights
1.
One of World War I’s positive legacies was women’s
suffrage. When the
Suffrage Association (NAWSA) threw
the support of its 2 million members behind
2.
NAWSA women in thousands of communities promoted food conservation, aided war
workers, and distributed emergency relief through
organizations such as the Red
Cross.
3.
Alice Paul and the National Woman’s Party (NWP) took a more confrontational
strategy. As a lobbyist for NAWSA, Paul found her cause
dismissed by
congressmen, and in 1916 she founded the NWP.
4.
Inspired by militant British suffragists, the party began picketing the White
House in July 1917. Paul and other NWP activists faced
arrest for "obstructing
traffic" and were sentenced to seven months in jail. They protested by going on
a hunger strike, which prison
authorities met with forced feeding. Public shock
at the women’s treatment put pressure on
cause.
5.
Impressed by NAWSA’s patriotism and also worried by
the NWP’s militancy, the anti-suffrage
1918, he urged support for woman suffrage as a "war
measure."
6.
The constitutional amendment quickly passed the House of Representatives; it
took eighteen months to get through the Senate and
another year to win
ratification by the states. On August 26, 1920,
needed.
IV. The Treaty of
A. The Fate of Wilson’s Ideas
1.
In January 1917, the idealistic
achieved victory at an incredible price,
2.
But the war’s horrors had created popular pressure for an outcome that was just
and enduring.
January 1919 when the Allies accepted his Fourteen Points as the basis for
negotiations.
3.
The Points embodied one important strand in American progressivism. They called
for open diplomacy, "absolute freedom of navigation
upon the seas," arms
reduction, removal of trade barriers, and national self-determination for peoples in the Austro-Hungarian, Russian,
and German empires.
4. Essential to
great and small
States alike." Acting as an international regulatory body, the League would
mediate disputes, supervise arms reduction,
and—according to the crucial
Article X of its covenant—curb aggressor nations through collective military
action.
League would "end all wars."
5. The three European Allied leaders—Prime
Minister David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Premier Georges Clemenceau of
France, and Prime
Minister Vittorio Orlando of
Italy—wanted to punish Germany for World War I. Their plan for doing so
had disastrous consequences.
First, they forced
of its territory along the French border.
6. These requirements caused
keen resentment and economic hardship in
to World War II.
7.
colonial empires but did not create independent states;
instead, they assigned colonies to themselves to administer as "mandates."
8.
9.
Given these results, the
far-flung as
10.
resolution of other disputes. For this to occur, American
participation in the League was crucial. So the president set out to persuade
the Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles.
B. Congress Rejects the Treaty
1.
Though major opinion makers and religious denominations supported the treaty,
the Republican Party was openly hostile, and it held a
majority in the Senate.
2.
One group, called the "irreconcilables," consisted of western Republicans such
as Hiram Johnson of
Wisconsin, who opposed
3.
Another group of Republicans, led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of
security—would prevent the
4.
To mobilize support for the treaty, the president embarked on an exhausting
speaking tour. In
urged
Democratic senators to reject all Republican amendments.
5.
When the treaty came up for a vote in November 1919, it failed to win the
required two-thirds majority; a second attempt, in March
1920, fell seven votes
short.
6.
The treaty was dead, and so was
ratified the