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Table of Contents

PART I: The Big Picture

Chapter 1

Why the Definition of Family Matters

Changing Family Structures

Changing Racial Dynamics

Changing Economics

Changing Religion

The Impact of Globalization

The Perspective Bias

The Unity Bias

The Selection Bias

The Importance of Sound Research

The Theory Piece

The Methods Piece

Quantitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods

Different Approaches for Different Questions

Different Questions for Different Purposes

Two Levels of Family Life

Theories That Connect the Macro and Micro Levels of Family Life

Chapter 2

Two Social Forces That Define and Influence Us

Construction

Diffusion

Connecting Construction and Diffusion

The Contemporary United States

The Colonial Period

Gender Roles in the Public Sphere

Children’s Roles

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Colonial Family Life

The Industrial Revolution and the Separation of Spheres

The Transformation of Gender Roles

Reconceiving Childhood

The Post–World War Years: The 1950s Retreat

Changes in the Nuclear Family

The Emergence of the White Nuclear Family

Poverty, Race, and Diversity in the Nuclear Family

Beyond the Nuclear Family

Historical Changes in Gender, Work, and Family

Marriage and Intimate Partnerships

Preindustrial Era: Marriage Out of Necessity

Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Starting to Feel the Love

Postindustrial Era: Marriage as Work

Parenting and Childhood

Chapter 3

Relations Between the State and Family

Constructing U.S. Families from the Colonial Period to Today

Early Intervention Followed by Retreat

Obvious Versus Subtle Coercion

Contemporary Protections

Marital Definitions, Standards, and Rights

Race/Ethnicity, Marriage, and the Law

Religion and Marriage Law

LGBTQ Marital Rights

Access to Divorce

The Evolution of No-Fault Divorce

Covenant Marriage Laws

Making a Wife a Husband’s Property

Taxation

Welfare

Child Custody and Support

Child Custody

Child Support

Custody and Support in the LGBTQ Population

Doctrine of Parens Patriae

Child Labor and Schooling

Children at Work

Children at School

Child Care 98

The Special Case of Immigration Law and Families

Marriage as the Channel for Citizenship

Newer Developments in Family Immigration

Immigration Status and Family Inequality 1

Immigration Policy and Children

Chapter 4

Understanding Socioeconomic Status

SES as a Point of Comparison

The Inertia of SES Within Families

SES Influence on Family Dynamics

The Impact of Hard Times

Defining Poverty

Measuring Poverty

Government Measurement of Poverty

Assessing the Federal Poverty Line as a Measure of Poverty

Improving the Federal Poverty Line

Poverty Rates

Poverty Rates by Race/Ethnicity, Region, and Age

Marriage, Children, and Gender

The Consequences of Poverty

Poverty, Risk, and Resilience

History of Government Welfare

Welfare Reform

The Post-Reform Era

Other Strategies to Reduce Poverty

Chapter 5

Gender and the Roles We Take On

Work and Marriage

Work and Divorce

Work and Decisions to Have Children

Work and Parenting Roles

Work and Intensive Mothering

Motherhood Penalty and Fatherhood Bonus

Work–Family Conflict

Work–Family Facilitation

Conflict, Facilitation, and Stress

Maternal Employment and Child Development

Nonstandard Schedules as a Work Characteristic Problematic for Children

Obesity as a Child Outcome Sensitive to Maternal Work

Work That Benefits Parents and Children

Supports for Women and Families with Children

Parental Leave

Affordable, Quality Child Care

Workplace Flexibility

PART II: Family Structure and Status

Chapter 6

Race/Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, and Two-Parent Families

Developmental Benefits of Two Parents

Statistics on Single-Parent Families

Outcomes for Children in Single-Parent Families

Dealing with the Lingering Stigma of Single Parenthood

The Economics of Single Parenthood

Incomplete Institutionalization of Stepparent Families

Children in Stepparent Families

Parental Cohabitation and How It Influences Children

Families Beginning with Nonmarital Births

Developmental Outcomes of Children with Same-Sex Parents

Gender, Sexuality, and Children Raised by Same-Sex Couples

Race/Ethnicity, Immigration, and Extended Families

Multigenerational Households 2

Developmental Outcomes and Extended Families

International and Domestic Adoption

Developmental Outcomes of Children in Adoptive Families

Chapter 7

Marriage Across Diverse Settings and Groups

Remarriage Across Diverse Settings and Groups

Race/Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, and the Modern Delay of Marriage

Marriage Market Dynamics

Similarity as Attraction

Socioeconomic Factors in the Marriage Market

Why Marriage Rates Matter

Marital Resources and Protections

Marriage and Health

Trends in Cohabitation

Types of Cohabitation

The Link Between Premarital Cohabitation and Divorce

Cohabitation from a Global Perspective

The Legal Landscape of Same-Sex Marriage

Characteristics of Same-Sex Unions

Children Within Same-Sex Unions

Adolescent Romance

Dimensions and Components of Adolescent Relationships

Early Relationships as a Training Ground for Adulthood

Relationship Formation in Young Adulthood

Relationship Formation from Young Adulthood to Adulthood

Chapter 8

Becoming a Parent: Societal and Personal Trends in Fertility and Infertility

Fertility as a Characteristic of the Population

Fertility Rates Across Countries

Fertility Declines by Region

Fertility Paradoxes and Myths

Causes and Consequences of Declining Fertility

A Spotlight on Teen Mothers

Perceptions of the Teen Pregnancy Crisis

Assessing the Effects of Teen Pregnancy

Transitioning into Parenthood

The Run-Up to Being a Parent

Relationships Between Parents

Intentions to Have a Child or Not

Wanting and Planning

Ambivalence About Getting Pregnant

Contraception

Diversity in Contraception Use

Contraception Use Among Teens

Abortion

Rate and the Demographics of Abortions

Women’s Experiences of Having Abortions

Infertility

Socioeconomic Status, Age, and Infertility

Responses to Infertility

Race, Class, and Nonmarital Fertility

Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Differences in Nonmarital Fertility

Myths About Nonmarital Fertility

Economic Resources and the Disconnect

Between Marriage and Fertility

Race, Class, and Multipartner Fertility

Multipartner Fertility and Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Inequality

The Connection Between Multipartner and Nonmarital Fertility

Chapter 9

The When and Who of Divorce

Historical Rates of Divorce

Differences in Measurement

Putting Divorce Trends in Context

Age and Divorce

Educational Attainment and Divorce

Race/Ethnicity and Divorce

Sexual Orientation and Divorce

Multiple Divorces

Time of Divorce

Phases of Divorce

The Aftermath of Divorce

Contributing Factors to the Divorce Process

The Importance of Selection into Divorce

Family Factors That Undermine Marriage

Multiple Risks

Adverse Health Consequences for Divorcees

Why Divorce Has Adverse Health Consequences

Assessing Cause and Effect in Divorce

Causal Mechanisms Linking Divorce to Health Outcomes

Variation in the Links Between Divorce and Health Outcomes

Consequences for Children 3

Are the Consequences of Divorce Real?

Long-Term Effects of Divorce Effects on Children

Children and Divorce: Sources of Risk and Resilience

Application Exercise: Exploring National Data on Family Instability

PART III: Family Relationships

Chapter 10

Relationship Quality

Examples of Vulnerability, Stress, and Adaptation

How Children Make a Relationship Vulnerable

Minority Status as a Stressor on Relationship Quality

Religion and Adaptation amid Threats to Relationship Quality

Doing Gender

The Role of Gender Ideology

How Gender Intersects with Other Demographic Factors

Gender in Everyday Life

Power Struggles

Gender, Power, and Same-Sex Couples

Who Holds the Power?

Communication and Support

Communication Between Partners

Socioemotional Support

Healthy Sex Life

Frequency of Sex

Sexual Satisfaction

Differences in Sex Across Countries

Sexual Satisfaction and Gender

Poor Conflict Resolution

Conflict and Polarization in Couples

Differences in How Couples Engage in Conflict

Unequal Division of Household Labor

Gender and Housework

Explanations of Gender Inequality in Housework Infidelity

Rates of Infidelity Across Diverse Groups

Damage and Recovery

Application Exercise: Calculating the Effects of Housework on Sex

Chapter 11

Cultural Diffusion of the Parenting Role

Parental Support

Parental Investment

Protection and Control

Learning How to Be a Parent

The Socialization of Parents

Macro-Level Socialization into the Parent Role

Micro-Level Influences in the Family

Micro-Level Influences in the Workplace and Among Peers

Micro-Level Influences from Personality and Disposition

A Closer Look at Time and Its Influence on the Parent Role

Physical Discipline

Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Corporal Punishment

What the Research Says

An Overview of Breast-Feeding

Rates of Breast-Feeding 3

The Recent History of Breast-Feeding in the United States

Breast-Feeding and the Meaning of Motherhood

Chapter 12

Attachment Theory

Styles of Attachment

Attachment in the Broader Society

Parenting During the Preschool Years

Brain Development and Cognitive Stimulation

Play and Language Development

Socioeconomic Differences in Early Language Use

Policy Approaches to Preschool Cognitive Development

Parenting During Later Childhood

Managing Children’s Educational Opportunities

Concerted Cultivation Versus Natural Growth

Parenting During Adolescence

The Risky Behavior of Adolescents

Parents’ Attempts to Control Adolescents’ Risky Behavior

Parenting Styles: Balancing Parental Control and Adolescent Autonomy

Parenting Styles Across Racial/Ethnic and Immigration Groups

Parenting During Young Adulthood

The Delayed Transition into Adulthood

Social Class and a New Model of Parenting

Extended Patterns of Co-residence

Contact

Emotional Support

Chapter 13

Population Trends Influencing Intergenerational Ties

The Meaning and Impact of Population Changes

The Age Structure of Families Is Getting Older and More Complex

Older and More Complex Families Mean More Resources and Responsibilities

Older and More Complex Families Create Choice in Relationships to Prioritize

Older and More Complex Families Complicate the Transfer of Power

The Emotional Tone of Intergenerational Relations

Solidarity Theory

Ambivalence Theory

Support Exchanges Across Generations

Downward and Upward Exchanges

Contingency Exchanges

Social Exchange Theory

The Impact of Intragenerational Dynamics on Intergenerational Relations

Distance, Gender, and Support

Differences in Support by Age and Generation

Changing Relationships as Grandparents Age and Grandchildren Develop

Grandparent Investments in Grandchildren

Race/Ethnicity, Immigration, Social Class, and Grandparents in the Household

Chapter 14

Violence Against Partners

Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration and Victimization

Gender and Sexual Orientation

Race and Ethnicity

Age

Vulnerability to Violence in a Relationship

Factors That Lead to IPV

Theories Explaining IPV

Key Influences on IPV

Addressing the Problem of Intimate Partner Violence

Ways that Parents Maltreat Their Children

Parents Who Maltreat Their Children

How Much of a Factor Is Parents’ SES?

Theories to Explain Parents’ Maltreatment of Children

Which Children Are More Likely to Be Victims of Maltreatment?

Consequences of Child Maltreatment for Children and Society

Types of Elder Abuse

Causes of Elder Abuse

Fighting Elder Abuse

Chapter 15

Characteristics of Sibling Relationships

The Structure of Sibling Relationships

Impact of Gender

Impact of Size

Impact of Birth Order

The Special Case of the Only Child

The Developmental Pathway of Sibling Relationships over the Life Course

Siblings and Aging Parents

Siblings and End-of-Life Care and Planning

Sibling Relationships Within the Family System

Impact of Differential Treatment

Impact of Sibling Temperament and Health

Impact of Siblings on Parenting Style

Impact of Siblings’ Perceptions of Each Other

Siblings as Resources

Social Development and Emotional Support 5

Practical Assistance and Support

Risks in Sibling Relationships

Modeling Bad Behavior

Sibling Conflict and Violence

Why Siblings Are Similar

Genetics

Environment

Why Siblings Are Different

Genetics

Environment

Complex Interplay of Genes and Environment

Purposeful Differentiation amid Similarity

Application Exercise: Assessing Sibling Characteristics

Glossary G-1

References R-1

Author Index AI-1

Subject Index SI-1

Authors

Robert Crosnoe

Robert Crosnoe is Rapoport Centennial Professor of Liberal Arts at the University of Texas at Austin, where he is the chair of the Department of Sociology and also holds faculty appointments in the Population Research Center and (by courtesy) Department of Psychology. Prior to coming to Texas, he received his Ph.D. in Sociology from Stanford University and completed post-doctoral fellowships at the Center for Developmental Science and Carolina Population Center, both at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Dr. Crosnoe’s research primarily focuses on family, education, and health with special attention to the experiences of children, adolescents, and young adults from socioeconomically disadvantaged and immigrant populations. This research has been funded by multiple grants from the National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation, Institute of Education Sciences, National Institute of Justice, William T. Grant Foundation, and Foundation for Child Development. It has been published in inter-disciplinary journals, such as American Educational Research Journal, American Journal of Public Health, American Sociological Review, Child Development, Demography, Developmental Psychology, Journal of Marriage and Family, and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. His books include Mexican Roots, American Schools: Helping Mexican Immigrant Children Succeed (Stanford University Press), Fitting In, Standing Out: Navigating the Social Challenges of High School to Get an Education (Cambridge University Press), Asset or Distraction: Physical Attractiveness and the Accumulation of Social and Human Capital from Adolescence and Young Adulthood (Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development with Rachel Gordon), Healthy Learners: A Whole Child Approach to Disparities in Early Education (Teachers College Press with Claude Bonazzo and Nina Wu), and Debating Early Child Care: The Relationship between Developmental Science and the MediaUniversity Press with Tama Leventhal). In the past, Dr. Crosnoe has been a Co-PI of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, chaired the Children and Youth Section of the American Sociological Association, served on the Governing Council of the Society for Research in Child Development, and completed a term as Deputy Editor of Journal of Marriage and Family. Currently, he is President-Elect of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Co-Director of the Interdisciplinary Collaborative on Development in Context, and serves on the board of the Council on Contemporary Families. He has been elected to the Sociological Research Association, received awards from the Society for Research in Child Development, three sections of the American Sociological Association, and the Society for Research on Human Development. He has also been awarded the Scholar Award from the William T. Grant Foundation and the Changing Faces of America’s Children fellowship from the Foundation for Child Development and completed a fellowship year at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.

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